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August 1994, Vol 130, No. 8 >
Article | August 1994

In Search of Human Skin Pheromones

Bruce A. Cohn, MD
[+] Author Affiliations

From the Department of Dermatology, University of California—San Francisco.


Arch Dermatol. 1994;130(8):1048-1051. doi:10.1001/archderm.1994.01690080114018
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The term pheromone was first designated by Karlson and Lüscher1 in 1959 as a substance secreted by an animal to the outside of that individual, which was then received by another individual, classically of the same species, and which then elicited some behavioral or developmental response in the latter. They composed the term from the Greek words pherein, which means to bring or to transfer, and hormon, which means to excite. In the usual context, this response in the second individual is of a sexual or of a reproductive physiologic nature, although sometimes the definition might even be extended to include other social responses such as when a dog uses pheromones in urine to mark territory. Classically, pheromones are thought of as being olfactory, but these chemicals may also be received by contact. Pheromones may be present in many different sites in animals, such as in the skin, including some of its glands, saliva, urine, vaginal discharge, and feces.

REFERENCES

1 +
Karlson P, Lüscher M.  'Pheromones': a new term for a class of biologically active substances . Nature . 1959;;183:55-56.
2 +
Melrose DR, Reed HCB, Patterson RLS.  Androgen steroids associated with boar odour as an aid to the detection of oestrus in pig artificial insemination . Br Vet J. 1971;;127:497-502.
3 +
Singer AG.  A chemistry of mammalian pheromones . J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;;39:627-632.
4 +
Berliner DL, Jennings-White C, Lavker RM.  The human skin: fragrances and pheromones . J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;;39:671-679.
5 +
Nicholson B.  Does kissing aid human bonding by semiochemical addiction? Br J Dermatol. 1984;;111:623-627.
6 +
Brooksbank BWL, Brown R, Gustafsson JA.  The detection of 5α-androst-16-en-3α-oL in human male axillary sweat . Experientia . 1974;;30:864-865.
7 +
Gower DB, Bird S, Sharma P, House FR.  Axillary 5α-androst-16-en-3-one in men and women: relationships with olfactory acuity to odorous 16-androstenes . Experientia . 1985;;41:1134-1136.
8 +
Preti G, Cutler WB, Christensen CM, Lawley HJ, Huggins GR, Garcia CR.  Hu- man axillary extracts: analysis of compounds from samples which influence menstrual timing . J Chem Ecol. 1987;;13:717-731.
9 +
Cutler WB, Preti G, Huggins GR, Erickson B, Garcia CR.  Sexual behavior frequency and biphasic ovulatory type menstrual cycles . Physiol Behav. 1985;; 34:805-810.
10 +
Cutler WB, Preti G, Krieger A, Huggins GR, Garcia CR, Lawley HJ.  Human axillary secretions influence women's menstrual cycles: the role of donor extract from men . Hormones Behav. 1986;;20:463-473.
11 +
McClintock MK.  Menstrual synchrony and suppression . Nature .1971;;229:244-245.
12 +
Preti G, Cutler WB, Garcia CR, Huggins GR, Lawley HJ.  Human axillary secretions influence women's menstrual cycles: the role of donor extract of females . Hormones Behav. 1986;;20:474-482.
13 +
Cowley JJ, Brooksbank BWL.  Human exposure to putative pheromones and changes in aspects of social behaviour . J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;;39: 647-659.
14 +
Moran DT, Jafek BW, Rowley JC III.  The vomeronasal (Jacobson's) organ in man: ultrastructure and frequency of occurrence . J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;;39:545-552.
15 +
Stensaas LJ, Lavker RM, Monti-Bloch L, Grosser Bl, Berliner DL.  Ultrastructure of the human vomeronasal organ . J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;; 39:553-560.
16 +
Garcia-Velasco J, Mondragon M.  The incidence of the vomeronasal organ in 1000 human subjects and its possible clinical significance . J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;;39:561-563.
17 +
Hurley HJ, Shelley WB. The Human Apocrine Sweat Gland in Health and Disease . Springfield, lll: Charles C Thomas Publisher; 1960;:77.
18 +
Craigmyle MBL. The Apocrine Glands and the Breast . New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 1984;:35-36.
19 +
Ebling FJG.  Apocrine glands in health and disorder . Int J Dermatol. 1989;;28: 508-511.
20 +
Ebling FJG.  Functions of the skin . In: Champion RH, Burton JL, Ebling FJG, eds. Rook-Wilkinson-Ebling Textbook of Dermatology . Boston, Mass: Black-well Scientific Publications Inc; 1992;:125-155.
21 +
Zihlman AL, Cohn BA.  The adaptive response of human skin to the savanna . Hum Evol. 1988;;3:397-409.
22 +
Sato K, Leidal R, Sato F.  Morphology and development of an apoeccrine sweat gland in human axillae . Am J Physiol. 1987;;252:R166-R180.
23 +
Sato K, Sato F.  Sweat secretion by human axillary apoeccrine sweat gland in vitro . Am J Physiol. 1987;;252:R181-R187.
24 +
Leyden JJ, McGinley KJ, Hölzle E, Labows JN, Kligman AM.  The microbiology of the human axilla and its relationship to axillary odor . J Invest Dermatol. 1981;;77:413-416.
25 +
Rennie PJ, Gower DB, Holland KT.  In vitro and in vivo studies of human axillary odour and the cutaneous microflora . Br J Dermatol. 1991;;124:596-602.
26 +
Bird S, Gower DB.  Axillary 5α-androst-16-en-3-one, cholesterol and squalene in men: preliminary evidence for 5α-androst-16-en-3-one being a product of bacterial action . J Steroid Biochem. 1982;;17:517-522.
27 +
Rennie PJ, Holland KT, Mallet AI, Watkins WJ, Gower DB.  Interconversion of androst-16-ene steroids by human axillary aerobic coryneform bacteria . Biochem Soc Trans. 1989;;17:1027-1028.
28 +
Leyden JJ, Zeng XN, McGinley K, Lawley HJ, Preti G.  Characterization of pungent axillary odors . J Invest Dermatol. 1990;;94:549.

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1 +
Karlson P, Lüscher M.  'Pheromones': a new term for a class of biologically active substances . Nature . 1959;;183:55-56.
2 +
Melrose DR, Reed HCB, Patterson RLS.  Androgen steroids associated with boar odour as an aid to the detection of oestrus in pig artificial insemination . Br Vet J. 1971;;127:497-502.
3 +
Singer AG.  A chemistry of mammalian pheromones . J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;;39:627-632.
4 +
Berliner DL, Jennings-White C, Lavker RM.  The human skin: fragrances and pheromones . J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;;39:671-679.
5 +
Nicholson B.  Does kissing aid human bonding by semiochemical addiction? Br J Dermatol. 1984;;111:623-627.
6 +
Brooksbank BWL, Brown R, Gustafsson JA.  The detection of 5α-androst-16-en-3α-oL in human male axillary sweat . Experientia . 1974;;30:864-865.
7 +
Gower DB, Bird S, Sharma P, House FR.  Axillary 5α-androst-16-en-3-one in men and women: relationships with olfactory acuity to odorous 16-androstenes . Experientia . 1985;;41:1134-1136.
8 +
Preti G, Cutler WB, Christensen CM, Lawley HJ, Huggins GR, Garcia CR.  Hu- man axillary extracts: analysis of compounds from samples which influence menstrual timing . J Chem Ecol. 1987;;13:717-731.
9 +
Cutler WB, Preti G, Huggins GR, Erickson B, Garcia CR.  Sexual behavior frequency and biphasic ovulatory type menstrual cycles . Physiol Behav. 1985;; 34:805-810.
10 +
Cutler WB, Preti G, Krieger A, Huggins GR, Garcia CR, Lawley HJ.  Human axillary secretions influence women's menstrual cycles: the role of donor extract from men . Hormones Behav. 1986;;20:463-473.
11 +
McClintock MK.  Menstrual synchrony and suppression . Nature .1971;;229:244-245.
12 +
Preti G, Cutler WB, Garcia CR, Huggins GR, Lawley HJ.  Human axillary secretions influence women's menstrual cycles: the role of donor extract of females . Hormones Behav. 1986;;20:474-482.
13 +
Cowley JJ, Brooksbank BWL.  Human exposure to putative pheromones and changes in aspects of social behaviour . J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;;39: 647-659.
14 +
Moran DT, Jafek BW, Rowley JC III.  The vomeronasal (Jacobson's) organ in man: ultrastructure and frequency of occurrence . J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;;39:545-552.
15 +
Stensaas LJ, Lavker RM, Monti-Bloch L, Grosser Bl, Berliner DL.  Ultrastructure of the human vomeronasal organ . J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;; 39:553-560.
16 +
Garcia-Velasco J, Mondragon M.  The incidence of the vomeronasal organ in 1000 human subjects and its possible clinical significance . J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1991;;39:561-563.
17 +
Hurley HJ, Shelley WB. The Human Apocrine Sweat Gland in Health and Disease . Springfield, lll: Charles C Thomas Publisher; 1960;:77.
18 +
Craigmyle MBL. The Apocrine Glands and the Breast . New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 1984;:35-36.
19 +
Ebling FJG.  Apocrine glands in health and disorder . Int J Dermatol. 1989;;28: 508-511.
20 +
Ebling FJG.  Functions of the skin . In: Champion RH, Burton JL, Ebling FJG, eds. Rook-Wilkinson-Ebling Textbook of Dermatology . Boston, Mass: Black-well Scientific Publications Inc; 1992;:125-155.
21 +
Zihlman AL, Cohn BA.  The adaptive response of human skin to the savanna . Hum Evol. 1988;;3:397-409.
22 +
Sato K, Leidal R, Sato F.  Morphology and development of an apoeccrine sweat gland in human axillae . Am J Physiol. 1987;;252:R166-R180.
23 +
Sato K, Sato F.  Sweat secretion by human axillary apoeccrine sweat gland in vitro . Am J Physiol. 1987;;252:R181-R187.
24 +
Leyden JJ, McGinley KJ, Hölzle E, Labows JN, Kligman AM.  The microbiology of the human axilla and its relationship to axillary odor . J Invest Dermatol. 1981;;77:413-416.
25 +
Rennie PJ, Gower DB, Holland KT.  In vitro and in vivo studies of human axillary odour and the cutaneous microflora . Br J Dermatol. 1991;;124:596-602.
26 +
Bird S, Gower DB.  Axillary 5α-androst-16-en-3-one, cholesterol and squalene in men: preliminary evidence for 5α-androst-16-en-3-one being a product of bacterial action . J Steroid Biochem. 1982;;17:517-522.
27 +
Rennie PJ, Holland KT, Mallet AI, Watkins WJ, Gower DB.  Interconversion of androst-16-ene steroids by human axillary aerobic coryneform bacteria . Biochem Soc Trans. 1989;;17:1027-1028.
28 +
Leyden JJ, Zeng XN, McGinley K, Lawley HJ, Preti G.  Characterization of pungent axillary odors . J Invest Dermatol. 1990;;94:549.

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